gain of amplifier



Because amplifiers have the ability to increase the magnitude of an input signal, it is useful to be able to rate an amplifier’s amplifying ability in terms of an output/input ratio. The technical term for an amplifier’s output/input magnitude ratio is gain. As a ratio of equal units (power out / power in, voltage out / voltage in, or current out / current in), gain is naturally a unitless measurement. Mathematically, gain is symbolized by the capital letter “A”.
For example, if an amplifier takes in an AC voltage signal measuring 2 volts RMS and outputs an AC voltage of 30 volts RMS, it has an AC voltage gain of 30 divided by 2, or 15:

Correspondingly, if we know the gain of an amplifier and the magnitude of the input signal, we can calculate the magnitude of the output. For example, if an amplifier with an AC current gain of 3.5 is given an AC input signal of 28 mA RMS, the output will be 3.5 times 28 mA, or 98 mA:

In the last two examples I specifically identified the gains and signal magnitudes in terms of “AC.” This was intentional, and illustrates an important concept: electronic amplifiers often respond differently to AC and DC input signals, and may amplify them to different extents. Another way of saying this is that amplifiers often amplify changes or variations in input signal magnitude (AC) at a different ratio than steady input signal magnitudes (DC). The specific reasons for this are too complex to explain at this time, but the fact of the matter is worth mentioning. If gain calculations are to be carried out, it must first be understood what type of signals and gains are being dealt with, AC or DC.
Electrical amplifier gains may be expressed in terms of voltage, current, and/or power, in both AC and DC. A summary of gain definitions is as follows. The triangle-shaped “delta” symbol (Δ) represents change in mathematics, so “ΔVoutput / ΔVinput” means “change in output voltage divided by change in input voltage,” or more simply, “AC output voltage divided by AC input voltage”:

If multiple amplifiers are staged, their respective gains form an overall gain equal to the product (multiplication) of the individual gains. (Figure )
If a 1 V signal were applied to the input of the gain of 3 amplifier in Figure a 3 V signal out of the first amplifier would be further amplified by a gain of 5 at the second stage yielding 15 V at the final output.

The gain of a chain of cascaded amplifiers is the product of the individual gains.

Decibels

In its simplest form, an amplifier’s gain is a ratio of output over input. Like all ratios, this form of gain is unitless. However, there is an actual unit intended to represent gain, and it is called the bel.
As a unit, the bel was actually devised as a convenient way to represent power loss in telephone system wiring rather than gain in amplifiers. The unit’s name is derived from Alexander Graham Bell, the famous Scottish inventor whose work was instrumental in developing telephone systems. Originally, the bel represented the amount of signal power loss due to resistance over a standard length of electrical cable. Now, it is defined in terms of the common (base 10) logarithm of a power ratio (output power divided by input power):

Because the bel is a logarithmic unit, it is nonlinear. To give you an idea of how this works, consider the following table of figures, comparing power losses and gains in bels versus simple ratios:

It was later decided that the bel was too large of a unit to be used directly, and so it became customary to apply the metric prefix deci (meaning 1/10) to it, making it decibels, or dB. Now, the expression “dB” is so common that many people do not realize it is a combination of “deci-” and “-bel,” or that there even is such a unit as the “bel.” To put this into perspective, here is another table contrasting power gain/loss ratios against decibels:

As a logarithmic unit, this mode of power gain expression covers a wide range of ratios with a minimal span in figures. It is reasonable to ask, “why did anyone feel the need to invent a logarithmic unit for electrical signal power loss in a telephone system?” The answer is related to the dynamics of human hearing, the perceptive intensity of which is logarithmic in nature.
Human hearing is highly nonlinear: in order to double the perceived intensity of a sound, the actual sound power must be multiplied by a factor of ten. Relating telephone signal power loss in terms of the logarithmic “bel” scale makes perfect sense in this context: a power loss of 1 bel translates to a perceived sound loss of 50 percent, or 1/2. A power gain of 1 bel translates to a doubling in the perceived intensity of the sound.
An almost perfect analogy to the bel scale is the Richter scale used to describe earthquake intensity: a 6.0 Richter earthquake is 10 times more powerful than a 5.0 Richter earthquake; a 7.0 Richter earthquake 100 times more powerful than a 5.0 Richter earthquake; a 4.0 Richter earthquake is 1/10 as powerful as a 5.0 Richter earthquake, and so on. The measurement scale for chemical pH is likewise logarithmic, a difference of 1 on the scale is equivalent to a tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration of a chemical solution. An advantage of using a logarithmic measurement scale is the tremendous range of expression afforded by a relatively small span of numerical values, and it is this advantage which secures the use of Richter numbers for earthquakes and pH for hydrogen ion activity.
Another reason for the adoption of the bel as a unit for gain is for simple expression of system gains and losses. Consider the last system example (Figure ) where two amplifiers were connected tandem to amplify a signal. The respective gain for each amplifier was expressed as a ratio, and the overall gain for the system was the product (multiplication) of those two ratios:

Overall gain = (3)(5) = 15
If these figures represented power gains, we could directly apply the unit of bels to the task of representing the gain of each amplifier, and of the system altogether. (Figure )

Power gain in bels is additive: 0.477 B + 0.699 B = 1.176 B.
Close inspection of these gain figures in the unit of “bel” yields a discovery: they’re additive. Ratio gain figures are multiplicative for staged amplifiers, but gains expressed in bels add rather than multiply to equal the overall system gain. The first amplifier with its power gain of 0.477 B adds to the second amplifier’s power gain of 0.699 B to make a system with an overall power gain of 1.176 B.
Recalculating for decibels rather than bels, we notice the same phenomenon. (Figure )

Gain of amplifier stages in decibels is additive: 4.77 dB + 6.99 dB = 11.76 dB.
To those already familiar with the arithmetic properties of logarithms, this is no surprise. It is an elementary rule of algebra that the antilogarithm of the sum of two numbers’logarithm values equals the product of the two original numbers. In other words, if we take two numbers and determine the logarithm of each, then add those two logarithm figures together, then determine the “antilogarithm” of that sum (elevate the base number of the logarithm — in this case, 10 — to the power of that sum), the result will be the same as if we had simply multiplied the two original numbers together. This algebraic rule forms the heart of a device called a slide rule, an analog computer which could, among other things, determine the products and quotients of numbers by addition (adding together physical lengths marked on sliding wood, metal, or plastic scales). Given a table of logarithm figures, the same mathematical trick could be used to perform otherwise complex multiplications and divisions by only having to do additions and subtractions, respectively. With the advent of high-speed, handheld, digital calculator devices, this elegant calculation technique virtually disappeared from popular use. However, it is still important to understand when working with measurement scales that are logarithmic in nature, such as the bel (decibel) and Richter scales.
When converting a power gain from units of bels or decibels to a unitless ratio, the mathematical inverse function of common logarithms is used: powers of 10, or the antilog.

Converting decibels into unitless ratios for power gain is much the same, only a division factor of 10 is included in the exponent term:


Example:

Power into an amplifier is 1 watts, the power out is 10 watt. Find the power gain in dB.
AP(dB) = 10 log10(PO / PI) = 10 log10 (10 /1) = 10 log10 (10) = 10 (1) = 10 dB

Example:

Find the power gain ratio AP(ratio) = (PO / PI) for a 20 dB Power gain.
AP(dB) = 20 = 10 log10 AP(ratio)
20/10 = log10 AP(ratio)
1020/10 = 10log10 (AP(ratio))
100 = AP(ratio) = (PO / PI)
Because the bel is fundamentally a unit of power gain or loss in a system, voltage or current gains and losses don’t convert to bels or dB in quite the same way. When using bels or decibels to express a gain other than power, be it voltage or current, we must perform the calculation in terms of how much power gain there would be for that amount of voltage or current gain. For a constant load impedance, a voltage or current gain of 2 equates to a power gain of 4 (22); a voltage or current gain of 3 equates to a power gain of 9 (32). If we multiply either voltage or current by a given factor, then the power gain incurred by that multiplication will be the square of that factor. This relates back to the forms of Joule’s Law where power was calculated from either voltage or current, and resistance:

Thus, when translating a voltage or current gain ratio into a respective gain in terms of the bel unit, we must include this exponent in the equation(s):

The same exponent requirement holds true when expressing voltage or current gains in terms of decibels:

However, thanks to another interesting property of logarithms, we can simplify these equations to eliminate the exponent by including the “2” as a multiplying factor for the logarithm function. In other words, instead of taking the logarithm of the square of the voltage or current gain, we just multiply the voltage or current gain’s logarithm figure by 2 and the final result in bels or decibels will be the same:

The process of converting voltage or current gains from bels or dcibels into unitless ratios is much the same as it is for power gains:

Here are the equations used for converting voltage or current gains in decibels into unitless ratios:

While the bel is a unit naturally scaled for power, another logarithmic unit has been invented to directly express voltage or current gains/losses, and it is based on the natural logarithm rather than the common logarithm as bels and decibels are. Called the neper, its unit symbol is a lower-case “n.”

For better or for worse, neither the neper nor its attenuated cousin, the decineper, is popularly used as a unit in American engineering applications.

Example:

The voltage into a 600 Ω audio line amplifier is 10 mV, the voltage across a 600 Ω load is 1 V. Find the power gain in dB.
A(dB) = 20 log10(VO / VI) = 20 log10 (1 /0.01) = 20 log10 (100) = 20 (2) = 40 dB

Example:

Find the voltage gain ratio AV(ratio) = (VO / VI) for a 20 dB gain amplifier having a 50 Ω input and out impedance.
AV(dB) = 20 log10 AV(ratio)
20 = 20 log10 AV(ratio)
20/20 = log10 AP(ratio)
1020/20 = 10log10 (AV(ratio))
10 = AV(ratio) = (VO / VI)

Absolute dB scales

It is also possible to use the decibel as a unit of absolute power, in addition to using it as an expression of power gain or loss. A common example of this is the use of decibels as a measurement of sound pressure intensity. In cases like these, the measurement is made in reference to some standardized power level defined as 0 dB. For measurements of sound pressure, 0 dB is loosely defined as the lower threshold of human hearing, objectively quantified as 1 picowatt of sound power per square meter of area.
A sound measuring 40 dB on the decibel sound scale would be 104 times greater than the threshold of hearing. A 100 dB sound would be 1010 (ten billion) times greater than the threshold of hearing.
Because the human ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies of sound, variations of the decibel sound-power scale have een developed to represent physiologically equivalent sound intensities at different frequencies. Some sound intensity instruments were equipped with filter networks to give disproportionate indications across the frequency scale, the intent of which to better represent the effects of sound on the human body. Three filtered scales became commonly known as the “A,” “B,” and “C” weighted scales. Decibel sound intensity indications measured through these respective filtering networks were given in units of dBA, dBB, and dBC. Today, the “A-weighted scale” is most commonly used for expressing the equivalent physiological impact on the human body, and is especially useful for rating dangerously loud noise sources.
Another standard-referenced system of power measurement in the unit of decibels has been established for use in telecommunications systems. This is called the dBm scale. (Figure ) The reference point, 0 dBm, is defined as 1 milliwatt of electrical power dissipated by a 600 Ω load. According to this scale, 10 dBm is equal to 10 times the reference power, or 10 milliwatts; 20 dBm is equal to 100 times the reference power, or 100 milliwatts. Some AC voltmeters come equipped with a dBm range or scale (sometimes labeled “DB”) intended for use in measuring AC signal power across a 600 Ω load. 0 dBm on this scale is, of course, elevated above zero because it represents something greater than 0 (actually, it represents 0.7746 volts across a 600 Ω load, voltage being equal to the square root of power times resistance; the square root of 0.001 multiplied by 600). When viewed on the face of an analog meter movement, this dBm scale appears compressed on the left side and expanded on the right in a manner not unlike a resistance scale, owing to its logarithmic nature.
Radio frequency power measurements for low level signals encountered in radio receivers use dBm measurements referenced to a 50 Ω load. Signal generators for the evaluation of radio receivers may output an adjustable dBm rated signal. The signal level is selected by a device called an attenuator, described in the next section.

Absolute power levels in dBm (decibels referenced to 1 milliwatt.
An adaptation of the dBm scale for audio signal strength is used in studio recording and broadcast engineering for standardizing volume levels, and is called the VU scale. VU meters are frequently seen on electronic recording instruments to indicate whether or not the recorded signal exceeds the maximum signal level limit of the device, where significant distortion will occur. This “volume indicator” scale is calibrated in according to the dBm scale, but does not directly indicate dBm for any signal other than steady sine-wave tones. The proper unit of measurement for a VU meter is volume units.
When relatively large signals are dealt with, and an absolute dB scale would be useful for representing signal level, specialized decibel scales are sometimes used with reference points greater than the 1 mW used in dBm. Such is the case for the dBW scale, with a reference point of 0 dBW established at 1 watt. Another absolute measure of power called the dBk scale references 0 dBk at 1 kW, or 1000 watts.