induction motor
Most AC motors are induction motors. Induction motors are favored due to their ruggedness and simplicity. In fact, 90% of industrial motors are induction motors.
Nikola Tesla conceived the basic principals of the polyphase induction motor in 1883, and had a half horsepower (400 watt) model by 1888. Tesla sold the manufacturing rights to George Westinghouse for $65,000.
Most large ( > 1 hp or 1 kW) industrial motors are poly-phase induction motors. By poly-phase, we mean that the stator contains multiple distinct windings per motor pole, driven by corresponding time shifted sine waves. In practice, this is two or three phases. Large industrial motors are 3-phase. While we include numerous illustrations of two-phase motors for simplicity, we must emphasize that nearly all poly-phase motors are three-phase. By induction motor, we mean that the stator windings induce a current flow in the rotor conductors, like a transformer, unlike a brushed DC commutator motor.
Construction
An induction motor is composed of a rotor, known as an armature, and a stator containing windings connected to a poly-phase energy source as shown in Figure . The simple 2-phase induction motor below is similar to the 1/2 horsepower motor which Nikola Tesla introduced in 1888.
Tesla polyphase induction motor.
The stator in Figure is wound with pairs of coils corresponding to the phases of electrical energy available. The 2-phase induction motor stator above has 2-pairs of coils, one pair for each of the two phases of AC. The individual coils of a pair are connected in series and correspond to the opposite poles of an electromagnet. That is, one coil corresponds to a N-pole, the other to a S-pole until the phase of AC changes polarity. The other pair of coils is oriented 90o in space to the first pair. This pair of coils is connected to AC shifted in time by 90o in the case of a 2-phase motor. In Tesla’s time, the source of the two phases of AC was a 2-phase alternator.
The stator in Figure has salient, obvious protruding poles, as used on Tesla’s early induction motor. This design is used to this day for sub-fractional horsepower motors (<50 watts).
However, for larger motors less torque pulsation and higher efficiency results if the coils are embedded into slots cut into the stator laminations. (Figure )
Stator frame showing slots for windings.
The stator laminations are thin insulated rings with slots punched from sheets of electrical grade steel. A stack of these is secured by end screws, which may also hold the end housings.
Stator with (a) 2-φ and (b) 3-φ windings.
In Figure , the windings for both a two-phase motor and a three-phase motor have been installed in the stator slots. The coils are wound on an external fixture, then worked into the slots. Insulation wedged between the coil periphery and the slot protects against abrasion.
Actual stator windings are more complex than the single windings per pole in Figure . Comparing the 2-φ motor to Tesla’s 2-φ motor with salient poles, the number of coils is the same. In actual large motors, a pole winding, is divided into identical coils inserted into many smaller slots than above.
This group is called a phase belt. See Figure . The distributed coils of the phase belt cancel some of the odd harmonics, producing a more sinusoidal magnetic field distribution across the pole. This is shown in the synchronous motor section. The slots a the edge of the pole may have fewer turns than the other slots. Edge slots may contain windings from two phases. That is, the phase belts overlap.
The key to the popularity of the AC induction motor is simplicity as evidenced by the simple rotor (Figure ). The rotor consists of a shaft, a steel laminated rotor, and an embedded copper or aluminum squirrel cage, shown at (b) removed from the rotor. As compared to a DC motor armature, there is no commutator. This eliminates the brushes, arcing, sparking, graphite dust, brush adjustment and replacement, and re-machining of the commutator.
Laminated rotor with (a) embedded squirrel cage, (b) conductive cage removed from rotor.
The squirrel cage conductors may be skewed, twisted, with respsect to the shaft. The misalignment with the stator slots reduces torque pulsations.
Both rotor and stator cores are composed of a stack of insulated laminations. The laminations are coated with insulating oxide or varnish to minimize eddy current losses. The alloy used in the laminations is selected for low hysteresis losses.
Theory of operation
A short explanation of operation is that the stator creates a rotating magnetic field which drags the rotor around.
The theory of operation of induction motors is based on a rotating magnetic field. One means of creating a rotating magnetic field is to rotate a permanent magnet as shown in Figure . If the moving magnetic lines of flux cut a conductive disk, it will follow the motion of the magnet. The lines of flux cutting the conductor will induce a voltage, and consequent current flow, in the conductive disk. This current flow creates an electromagnet whose polarity opposes the motion of the permanent magnet– Lenz’s Law. The polarity of the electromagnet is such that it pulls against the permanent magnet. The disk follows with a little less speed than the permanent magnet.
Rotating magnetic field produces torque in conductive disk.
The torque developed by the disk is proportional to the number of flux lines cutting the disk and the rate at which it cuts the disk. If the disk were to spin at the same rate as the permanent magnet, there would be no flux cutting the disk, no induced current flow, no electromagnet field, no torque. Thus, the disk speed will always fall behind that of the rotating permanent magnet, so that lines of flux cut the disk induce a current, create an electromagnetic field in the disk, which follows the permanent magnet. If a load is applied to the disk, slowing it, more torque will be developed as more lines of flux cut the disk. Torque is proportional to slip, the degree to which the disk falls behind the rotating magnet. More slip corresponds to more flux cutting the conductive disk, developing more torque.
An analog automotive eddy current speedometer is based on the principle illustrated above. With the disk restrained by a spring, disk and needle deflection is proportional to magnet rotation rate.
A rotating magnetic field is created by two coils placed at right angles to each other, driven by currents which are 90o out of phase. This should not be surprising if you are familiar with oscilloscope Lissajous patterns.
Out of phase (90o) sine waves produce circular Lissajous pattern.
In Figure , a circular Lissajous is produced by driving the horizontal and vertical oscilloscope inputs with 90o out of phase sine waves. Starting at (a) with maximum “X” and minimum “Y” deflection, the trace moves up and left toward (b). Between (a) and (b) the two waveforms are equal to 0.707 Vpk at 45o. This point (0.707, 0.707) falls on the radius of the circle between (a) and (b) The trace moves to (b) with minimum &